As I mentioned in my last post, technology has been utilized in the field of ESL/language learning since the 1950s. Educational technology in language learning has evolved from the use of simple audio recordings for drill and practice in the language classroom and lab to the application of a wide variety of computer, digital, and internet technology-based instructional software that has become available under the broad label of computer assisted language learning (CALL).
Selecting instructional software for language learning as for any field is a complex task. In the case of language pedagogy, technology has mostly been ancillary to classroom instruction, and as such selected software should display its full utility in supplementing not supplanting the instruction of the teacher. It must clearly function to aid the learner in the acquisition of specific language skills outlined by set learning outcomes rather than merely to capture the learner’s attention. The process of selecting technology for language learning can be informed by both the notion of relative advantage and Robyler’s (2016) classification scheme in which she categorizes instructional software into drill-and-practice, tutorial, simulation, instructional game, and problem-solving types. In the context of the ESL academic writing course, where learners are often at a the proficient end of the language learning spectrum, the instructor should consider the two aforementioned guiding factors and the needs specific to individual learners when choosing instructional software.
Drill-and-practice instructional software which provides students with practice and immediate feedback is likely the type of CALL that language instructors are most familiar with. Though it has faced criticism by constructivist theorists and educators, Drill-and-practice software has been a mainstay in language pedagogy since the 1960s when language teaching was guided by the principles of structural linguistics (Warschauer, 2004) and behaviorist learning theories. With regards to the ESL academic writing class, the utility of drill-and-practice software is most apparent in vocabulary and grammar learning. Quizlet and Studyblue, which are both free online study tools, allow students to create their own sets of customized flashcards, for example. Students can add as much or as little information on their electronic flashcards as the instructor requires. After they have created their own set, they can test themselves on their computers or mobile devices. This is particularly useful for the memorization required for vocabulary acquisition. Similarly, the multitude of grammar exercises available through various online sources such as Englisch-Hilfen.com and UsingEnglish.com and smartphone/tablet apps such as Cambridge’s English Grammar in Use app provide students with numerous multiple choice or fill-in-the-blank grammar exercise. Drill-and-practice instructional software is useful in that it allows learners to customize practice to their specific needs, it reduces the necessity for paper used for flash cards and handouts, and it reduces the time required for hand-grading assignments.
Also based in directed instruction and objectivist learning theories is tutorial software. Tutorial software attempts to delivers content as a classroom teacher would and in addition provides all the advantages characteristic of drill-and-practice software (Robyler, 2016).Tutorials also have the added benefit of allowing students to repeatedly review content at their own pace. The most widely accepted tutorials are frequently found either as a technology supplement that students purchase with their textbooks or on various online sources such as Khan Academy. In addition, free online software such as Camtasia, Screencast-O-Matic, and Ezvid allow instructors to create their own video tutorials. Tutorial software, however, like drill-and-practice software does have its detractors. According to Robyler, constructivists have criticized tutorial software for several limitations including a lack of well-designed products and the uniformity of instructional approach inherent in any particular tutorial product. Though the design quality of tutorial software may indeed vary to a great degree, the sheer number of tutorials available on the Internet may possibly diminish the idea that a topic is only taught using one instructional approach.
At the moment tutorial software that fully integrates tutorial and adequate feedback capabilities seems unavailable for the ESL writing class. This is probably due in part to the fact that although many aspects of ESL writing, such as grammar, vocabulary, and spelling, may be attended to objectively, and automatic feedback can be easily provided, at the level of academic writing the focus moves toward more subjective features of composition such as a strong thesis statement and well-reasoned, logical arguments. It is this latter aspect in which most if not all ESL writing tutorials are inclined to fail. For example, Cambridge University Press’ Writing Skills Interactive provide students with sequenced tutorials covering a range of topics related to academic essay writing followed by multiple-choice and drag-and-drop exercises that focus on language features characteristic of these topics. However, a feature that assesses student-generated original sentences for say a cause and effect relationship is lacking. Likewise, software such as automated essay scoring, which might fulfill this need for subjective assessment, is usually limited to standardized writing tests and not for the individual writing classroom.
The third category in Robyler’s classification scheme is simulation software. She explains that simulation software are “programs that provide computerized models of a real or imagined system that is designed to teach how the system works” (Robyler, 2016, p. 104) and support both directed and constructivist teaching strategies. Simulation software is more relevant to STEM fields and thus may not be directly pertinent for ESL writing. However, given that many academic writing courses are content-based that is instructors teach language features and their functions in the context of sustained academic content areas such as business or psychology, simulations may be useful in providing students with additional explanations and visualizations of field specific content from which they can practice various forms of academic writing. For example, in a unit focused on health or human biology, an instructor might ask learners to write a process paragraph outlining the steps in the sleep-wake cycle after viewing a simulation explicating the steps in this cycle. This paragraph could then be used in an essay about the sleeping habits of college students.
Another category of instructional software that is gaining popularity among educators and is highly appealing to students of all ages is instructional gaming. According to Robyler, instructional games are similar to drill-and-practice and simulations in their use, but have the added elements of game rules, competition, and entertaining formats. It is these distinct characteristics that make these programs “highly motivating” (p. 104). Instructional games are useful as they can be used in any content area and may be used in any class format (e.g. individual, whole class, pairs, small groups). One instructional game which is popular today is Kahoot!. Kahoot! allows the instructor to create informal assessments around any content area and deliver it via a free, online audience-response platform. Learners interact with the game using their own mobile devices over wi-fi or their own 3/4G network. This program also allows the instructor to add images and embed Youtube videos into each question increasing its dynamic nature. Similar to Kahoot!, is the audience-response program, Poll Everywhere. Poll Everywhere mirrors the functionality of Kahoot! and provides additional features such as short answer questions, in which students can type sentences or paragraphs, and interactive image questions, in which students touch a specific area of an image that appears on their mobile devices to answer questions.
Instructional games such as Kahoot! and Poll Everywhere benefit both the student and the instructor in several ways. Tremblay (2010) found through surveys of post-secondary science learners that the use of cell phone-based audience-response systems increased enjoyment, decreased boredom, increased interactivity, and increased emotional engagement in the classroom. Additionally, depending on the type of instructional game, students can learn cooperation and communication skills through group activities centered around gaming platform. In the ESL academic writing class, instructional games can be used to review any and all aspects of the course objectives from grammar and vocabulary issues to the creation of thesis statements and even full paragraphs. Instructors, on the other hand, benefit from the ability to quickly provide ongoing informal assessments of previous content and reduce the need for paper-based worksheets and quizzes. In addition to their gaming functions, Both Kahoot! and Poll Everywhere include analytics that allow the instructor to track student progress.
Problem-solving programs, which are designed with the goal of developing discrete problem-solving skills, are the fifth category of instructional software. Created with the underpinnings of constructivist learning theories in mind, problem-solving programs, according to Roblyer, benefit students by increasing interest, increasing motivation, encouraging collaboration, and preventing “inert knowledge”. The value of problem-solving software in the ESL academic writing class would presumably be most apparent in content-driven writing courses in which the problem-solving program in conjunction with vocabulary and grammar instruction facilitates a culminating writing assignment. Consistent with this notion, a preliminary study by Hussein et. al. (2012) in which problem-solving activities were used to teach academic writing in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context showed that students improved their mean scores on a standardized writing assessment.
Instructional software provides many opportunities to engage students in learning. In the context of an ESL academic writing classroom they can provide both direct and indirect supplemental materials. Drill-and-practice and instructional games are easily applicable as are tutorials to some extent in the teaching and reinforcement of specific language structures and discourse features. Simulations and problem-solving software, on the other hand, lend themselves to supporting content-driven writing courses. Writing students will benefit the most from the customizability of these programs and from the opportunity to review material at their own pace, while instructors will gain the advantage of having a reduced amount of homework to collect and a decreased amount of paper consumption.
References
Hussein, H., Roslan, S., Noordin, N., & Abdullah, M. (2012). Using the problem solving
approach to teach writing to EFL learners. The English Teacher, 41(2), pp. 144-
159.
Robyler, M. D. (2016). Integrating educational technology into teaching. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Tremblay, E. A. (2010). Educating the mobile generation - using personal cell phones as
audience response systems in post-secondary science teaching. Journal of
Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 29(2), pp. 217-227.
Warschauer, M. (2004). Technological change and the future of CALL. In S. Fotos & C.
Brown (Eds.), New perspectives on CALL for second and foreign language
classrooms (pp. 15-25). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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